herbs. When the cows were too old to give milk, they were slaughtered for beef.

Farm houses were without chimneys and the smoke from fire built in the center of the room, went out through a hole in the roof. The whole family usually lived, ate and slept in the one central room. Beds were a rarity, the folk slept on a pile of straw and reeds, with rough materials for cover. To be sure, living standards were low in other countries in these times. Even in England, chimneys were scarcely known until the time of Queen Elizabeth I. Nevertheless, the situation in Ireland was more miserable than the rest. However, people in the few towns of the times lived somewhat better than the farmers, while the chiefs lived well in stone castles, built for defense.

The society of the Irish was the tribal system, similar to that of the Scottish Highlanders. The tribe or clan consisted of several families, all kin. The head of each family had full power over his household and he in turn was subject to the head of the tribe. The tribes united under chieftains who were elected for life by the clansmen. This outdated system is partly blamed for the Irish, a gifted, capable people, falling behind other countries in commerce, wealth, comfort and culture.

The English nominally ruled the country after the Anglo-Norman invasion under Henry II, but the authority was usually limited to small areas known as the Pale—so called from being an area surrounded by a dyke and a raised fence. Beyond the Pale, tribal rule prevailed.

The Reformation, which brought new life to other countries, never came to Ireland, as there was no great leader such as Luther, Calvin or Knox. The Catholic church degenerated to a deplorable state at the time. The church buildings were in decay, there was a shortage of clergy and such as there were had fallen into laziness and corruption. Services were rarely held and the people were wholly ignorant in religious matters. There was an opportunity to which Protestantism failed to respond. The Catholic order of Jesuites finally came in to fill the void. Their zeal and genius for organization, had marvelous results and Ireland was preserved for the Roman faith to this day. Eventually, to enmity that already existed between the English and the Irish, was added the religious conflict of Catholic and Protestant. Seemingly all developments political and religious, contributed to the sad history of Ireland.

Ulster, the northern part of Ireland, the area with which